Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about substance use and abuse Essay

In discovering about substance use and abuse one issue encountered are the inevitable ethical issues that occur. In Mestel and Concar’s study for example, sensitive data was collected. Sharing this sensitive data wit hthe researchers may have caused participants unnecessary anxiety or embarrassment if for example the urine test showed that they had used cocaine. This inevitably leads to ethical issues due to the unpleasant emotions participants may have been subjected to. Similarly in Robinson et al’s study, participants may have experienced unpleasant emotions such as embarrassment and ill ease as a result of the personal nature of the questions asked. From the two studies we can see that ethics is often a factor when exploring the issue of substance use and abuse however substance abuse is, by definition, against social expectations and consequently is always likely to incur ethical dilemmas when researchers attempt to discover substance use and abuse. Another difficulty incurred when attempting to explore substance use and abuse is social desirability. Social desirability is the term given to the situation in which people give answers that are contrary or different to their beliefs because their alternative answer is more socially acceptable. In Moolchan et al’s study for example personal data was collected and in order to present themselves in abetter light people may have lied when giving their answer – responding by saying that their parent didn’t smoke when in fact they did for example. Similarly in Lando’s study baseline data was collected by asking participants to keep a diary detailing their smoking for one week. Participants may have recorded false information because they felt this false information would be more socially acceptable. Social desirability can lead to results which are invalid and resultantly lead to a lack of validity as the study will not record peoples true response. Another difficulty in discovering substance use and abuse is the issue of generalisability. Generalisability is the term used to define the extent to which results from one sample of participants can be applied to wider groups. In Griffiths study for example the findings may not be able to generalised to a country such as Australia as the sample used was not representative. Similarly Murray’s study conducted in 1988 had a sample which was exclusively composed of adolescents and consequently it could not be applied to the wider population. In reality however a study is likely to never be truly representative to a global extent and in doing so such a diverse sample may make it hard for clear results to be distinguished due to cultural differences. Research into substance use and abuse may also incur the difficulty of ethnocentric bias. This is the tendency to perceive the world from you own cultural group, such as your wthnic group. The issue of ethnocentric bias can be seen in Gomels study. Gomel looked at a workplace in which smoking had been banned and how this related to the reduction in substance use (smoking). The study can be een to be ethnocentrically biased because it was conducted in one workplace in Australia. Ethnocentric bias can result in research that is not applicable to the larger population as the results from this study may not be found to be the same if it was conducted in Australia for example. c) Many people resolve to give up smoking each new year. With middle aged women specifically in mind suggest one psychological technique which would be useful to help them in their attempts to stop smoking. Give reasons for your answer. In attempting to stop smoking one technique which may be useful is the use of self help groups. Self help groups are support circles where each member is also attempting to quit smoking. As Moolchan discovered in his study, women who smoke are likely to be socially skilled and confident and so may find a group therapy useful where they can support and gain support from other women in the group who are in a socially similar position to themselves. Group therapy may also be effective in helping a middle aged woman quit smoking as she may make friends with people in the group and thus turn to them for support as she would turn to a friend outside of the group. The clear difference however would be that the person in the group would be going through the same experience as the middle aged woman and so would be able to identify with her. Those in the support group may also acknowledge an element of competition each one wanting to continue to stop smoking so they remain in the group. For this variety of reasons a support group is likely to be the most effective strategy in supporting a middle aged woman who is giving up smoking.

Profile Of An Adult Numeracy Learner

PA is attending an adult numeracy class because he was sent by his employer. His employer completed his Level 2 National Test last year and is now insisting that all his employees follow suit. Non-completion will result in no promotion and no annual pay rise Initial assessment The key implications here are that PA is currently working at Entry Level 3 in most numeric areas. He should be able to increase his ability level and undertake Level 1 without too many problems. However he needs to achieve Level 2 in order to gain his pay rise and promotion so this will put him under a lot of preasure and additional stress. According to Tennant (1988), PA, as a 36 year old, is in his midlife transitional period and will be â€Å"Adopting a changing time perspective and revising career plans†; this can be substantiated as PA is attending a numeracy course because of changes that are taking place at work. His employer has stated that the course must be completed and the Level 2 National Test must be passed or PA will not receive a promotion or his annual pay rise. This is an unusual situation, as according to Charnley & Jones (1987), â€Å"Getting a pay rise as a direct result of tuition is extremely rare†. Patterns of adult learning reflect class divisions in society and the different expectations and perceptions resulting from those divisions. Factors such as social class, gender and race impact on decisions to learn, as each is associated with particular cultural pressures and norms. According to Maslow (1973) once physiological needs have been met safety or security becomes predominant. In other words, there is a need for self-preservation and a common concern for the future e. g. , will we be able to maintain our property and our job in order to provide shelter and food tomorrow and the next day? It is likely that this is the stage PA is at particularly as he knows that if he does not pass the relevant exams he will not get a pay rise or promotion. Peer and reference group influences can also be extremely strong (Evans, 2000). People who are habitual learners tend to belong to groups where education is seen as a normal activity. They also tend to be involved in other forms of social participation. Non-learners belong to groups for whom engaging in learning is not part of normal behaviour – this is certainly true of PA who would not have engaged initially in numeracy earning through his own choice, and who, until recently would not engage in any social activity e. g. attending a school fund raising evening. Among male manual workers, for example, there is a strong culture of group conformity and solidarity. To engage in education that is not immediately job-related is seen as what women or children do and is, therefore, not a masculine activity (McGivney, 1996). Social class continues to be the key discriminator in understanding participation in learning. Over half of all upper and middle class (AB) respondents are current or recent learners, compared with one-third of the skilled working class (C2) and one quarter of unskilled working class people and people on limited incomes (Gallup Survey 1996). However, what and how much is learned can be influenced by the learner's motivation (NIACE, 1997) and, from my own experiences within the post-compulsory education sector, I would have to agree with this. However, motivation to learn could be, in turn, influenced by an individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. PA's current, positive, beliefs about himself as a learner and the nature of learning appear to have had a marked influence on his motivation. It could be said that the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure may enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Motivational and emotional factors may also influence both the quality of his thinking and information processing as well as his individual motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e. g. , anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e. g. , worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatising labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance (Evans, 2000). This could be seen during PA's recent Numeracy Level 1 National Test when he experienced mild anxiety, but was extremely motivated and positive about the experience and his ability – and he passed first time! Motivation is, therefore, not a simple issue, since individual motives and action are strongly affected by where people are located (socially, culturally and spatially) and the constraints or incentives that operate on their choices (NIACE). PA blames his current lack of knowledge and qualifications in numeracy on his underachievement at school. If we look more closely it becomes apparent that, because of his age, PA would have been attending school during the 1970's and 1980's. It was during this time that the early underachievement of boys first became evident, as large scale studies of children's achievements at Primary school pointed to the fact that girls consistently out-performed boys (Myers, 2000). Therefore there was a shift away from public concern about girls' achievement to boys' achievement, or underachievement, at school in exams. The concern about ‘boys' underachievement' has been characterised in educational policy initiatives at national, local and school levels, most significantly in the imposition of the national literacy and numeracy strategy (Barrs and Pidgeon 1998). However, overall improvements in achievement are often ignored and gender differences are ascribed to the detrimental effects of ‘the feminisation of teaching' (Epstein et al, 1998). The concern for boys' underachievement was highlighted by Murphy and Elwood (1998) who argued that improvement in female achievement is not shared by girls from low socio-economic backgrounds and may not be apparent in some subjects. Similarly, Epstein et al (1998) questioned the global application of the category of boys' underachievement' by asking, ‘†¦ hich boys? At what stages of education? †¦ according to what criteria? ‘ We could say that by definition, gender roles are the social norms that dictate what is socially appropriate male and female behaviour (Tobias, 1997), and are part of the socialisation process of human beings. These roles are also influenced by each individual's cultural and economic background (Tobias, 1997). It could be said that gender roles influence women and men in virtually every area of life, including family and occupation. This is certainly true for PA, who feels that it is his duty to provide for his family and to have the greater earning capacity regardless of his lack of formal qualifications. Everyone recognises that there are significant differences between male and female, even if they are only physical. However, others see not only the physical but also the social, emotional and intellectual differences. In addition there is belief that, by the age of sixteen, females have matured more than boys by up to as much as two years (Skelton, 2001). This could mean that girls have an advantage by viewing exams in a far more responsible way and recognising the seriousness and importance of the academic and career choices in the future. PA agrees with this as he did not take his schooling seriously and, quite possibly due to the fact that PA knew he was underachieving and he was unmotivated, he left school at 16 with no formal qualifications. He has only recently started to regret his actions. The figures from the 1996 Gallup survey could also be used to illustrate this as more adult men (25%) are currently learning compare to adult women (21%). Now that he is within the adult education sector, PA appears to see learning numeracy as a process of liberation. This may be because PA now feels that the educational process is not static and that his learning is a cultural action for freedom. It no longer involves one person teaching another, but rather people working with each other to ensure each individual reaches their potential. This was also the understanding of Bruner (1973), who suggested that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon their current / past knowledge. Adult learners also appear to be more receptive to learning if there is a context to the learning. Teaching adults numerical skills which ‘transfer' means exposing â€Å"students to different contexts which have the same mathematical content† (Rees and Barr, 1984) e. g. electrical work, decorating, shopping or linked to employment. This is certainly true for PA who works better, and appears to have a deeper understanding, when he can see there is a relevance and context to what he is learning. According to Bruner (1973), the teacher and student should engage in active dialogue and the task of the teacher is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learners' current state of understanding. During numeracy there are so many ways of doing and explaining one thing, one example would be the various descriptions used for the actions of ‘add' and ‘subtract', another example would be the various methods of teaching long multiplication. In addition, Bruner (1973) stated that the curriculum should be organised in a spiral manner, so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned, â€Å"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the learner, through construction, discovers certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns† (Bruner, 1973). When working with PA, as for all my learners, I ensure that I question his current method and understanding of each numeric topic before I go into the topic in depth. This way I am constantly building on his current knowledge and understanding. A high percentage of the learners at Rochford Adult Community College are White British and PA falls into this group, ‘Rochford has one of the lowest ethnic minority populations, well below half of the national average' (Rochford District Council, 2005). However, according to the Home Office's Commission for Racial Equality, 2002, the United Kingdom is a changing society and these socio-economic changes are reflected in our growing cultural and ethnic diversity. These changes bring many gains, but sometimes there are tensions and divisions that may lead to fracturing within, and across, local areas and communities. However, whatever the nature of community divisions, the basis of the solution is often the same; community cohesion. The Home Office's Commission for Racial Equality, 2002, suggests that community cohesion may be achieved by raising awareness and understanding and developing shared values with mutual trust and respect. The Home Office describes a cohesive community as one where there is common vision, a sense of belonging, where diversity is valued and where there are similar life opportunities with â€Å"†¦ strong and positive relationships being developed between people from different backgrounds†¦ in colleges and in schools†¦ † (www. homeoffice. gov. uk, 2003). This is also the ethos of Essex County Council and consequently Castle Point and Rochford Adult Community College (www. essexcc. gov. uk, 2005).

Athens vs Han China Dbq

Athens was known for it’s talent; like we know today, Pericles, Plato, Socrates and more. While Athens Greece was prospering, China was suffering. During this period, Confucius lived and taught. His teachings had a rather big influence on Han China and China’s Golden Age. Chinese achievements rivaled the achievements of the Athenians. In spite of Han China and Athens Greece, they were two major empires that both ruled around the same time frame. They had differences such as population, government, and religion/culture. One of the differences Athens and Han China shared were there forms of government. Document 4 shares the characteristic of government with documents 5, 6 7. In â€Å"the oration of Pericles†(4) â€Å"Our form of government is called a democracy because it’s administration is in the hands of the peoples† while â€Å"Mandate of Heaven† (6) In this document Mencius tells the story of Yao and Shun. The Mandate of Heaven is China’s belief that emperors where chose by Heaven. In the document Wan Chang asked â€Å"in that case who gave the Empire to Shun? † and Mencius said, â€Å" Heaven gave it to him. † Wang Chang believed that Heaven gave Shun the Empire. He had that point of view because of what Mencius had told him about the Mandate of Heaven. In â€Å"Government in Athens† (5) It discusses how the Athenian Golden Age was inspired by the development of democracy by the Athenians. â€Å"In the most precise and literal sense Athenians governed themselves† there wasn’t a King or an almighty ruler. Generals were elected from the Assembly and served for a year’s term† On the contrary, â€Å"A remarkably Successful Kind of Government†(7) discusses how the Emperor appoints governors to each district. This type of government was effective because the central government was further enhanced by delegation of different areas . â€Å"The Chinese empire was indeed the largest political system in the classical world. † A document that would have been nice to read about would be a document with citizens from both Athens and Han, and their perspective and outlook on their form of government . Another difference Athens and Han China both had were population. Document 1 shares the characteristic of population with documents 2 3. In document one it shows two maps, one of Athens, and one of the Han Empire. These maps are a biased point of view though because it has the Han Empire map enlarged so it makes the map of Athens look smaller, but also on the map of Athens in the bottom corner it has an enlarged box of Attica. This document is not resourceful if you wanted to compare the size of Athens and Han because the maps are two different sides. It would have been helpful to have the maps the same size, also they could have showed the populations in the areas and where most people lived and where they traveled. â€Å"Athens population distribution† (2) This document shows the total population of Attica which is 315,000 . It also shows how many people were in each class, the class that had the most people were the slaves with 115,00. â€Å"Han China : population distribution†(3) This document shows the total population in Han China, 65,000,000 . Clearly Athens and Han differed in there size and population. Also in this document it shows how many people were in each class. The class with the most people is, Peasant farmers/urban workers with 58,500,000 people. Culture/ Religion is another difference Athens and Han China had. Document 8 shares the characteristic of Culture/Religion just like documents 9,10,11 12. â€Å"what is a good citizen†(8) This shows Athenian culture and what they had believed is a good citizen. This document discusses how each individual isn’t just interested in his own problems or his own self, but he’s also interested in the state and it’s affairs. While in document 10 â€Å"Confucius on the Individual and the State† This document is showing culture because the people of the Han China culture believed what Confucius taught and said. In this document Confucius said that fathers are to cover up for their sons and sons to cover up for their fathers. What would have made this document more relevant to Han China’s culture would be facts on how Confucius culturally and religiously influenced Han China and it’s peoples to believe his teachings. â€Å"Dialogue of Socrates and Crito in Prison†(9) This document is about Crito trying to get Socrates to escape from prison. Socrates was thrown into prison because he was charged for not believing in the gods that everyone believed, introducing other gods, and corrupting the youth. This shows culture because that’s what people did if you did not believe in the same Gods they believed in. Socrates did not believe or listen to Crito, he had that point of view because nothing would convince him other wise of what he thought, â€Å" I know that anything more, which you may say, will not convince me† – Socrates. Document 11†Discus Thrower† is a painting of an Athenian man throwing a discuss, the cultural style of art differed from Han China’s style of art. Ch’ iu Ying Landscape (12) differed from document 11. This is a painting of a landscape, while document 11 was a portrait. What would have been better to help further contrast these different cultures styles of art would be more documents of Han Athens’s artworks. In closing, Han China and Athens Greece had there differences in three categories, but there are more differences then just those three. For example, everyday life for the citizens. Although Han China and Athens Greece were two major empires that both ruled around the same time frame. They had there differences such as population, government, and religion/culture. Athens vs Han China Dbq Athens was known for it’s talent; like we know today, Pericles, Plato, Socrates and more. While Athens Greece was prospering, China was suffering. During this period, Confucius lived and taught. His teachings had a rather big influence on Han China and China’s Golden Age. Chinese achievements rivaled the achievements of the Athenians. In spite of Han China and Athens Greece, they were two major empires that both ruled around the same time frame. They had differences such as population, government, and religion/culture. One of the differences Athens and Han China shared were there forms of government. Document 4 shares the characteristic of government with documents 5, 6 7. In â€Å"the oration of Pericles†(4) â€Å"Our form of government is called a democracy because it’s administration is in the hands of the peoples† while â€Å"Mandate of Heaven† (6) In this document Mencius tells the story of Yao and Shun. The Mandate of Heaven is China’s belief that emperors where chose by Heaven. In the document Wan Chang asked â€Å"in that case who gave the Empire to Shun? † and Mencius said, â€Å" Heaven gave it to him. † Wang Chang believed that Heaven gave Shun the Empire. He had that point of view because of what Mencius had told him about the Mandate of Heaven. In â€Å"Government in Athens† (5) It discusses how the Athenian Golden Age was inspired by the development of democracy by the Athenians. â€Å"In the most precise and literal sense Athenians governed themselves† there wasn’t a King or an almighty ruler. Generals were elected from the Assembly and served for a year’s term† On the contrary, â€Å"A remarkably Successful Kind of Government†(7) discusses how the Emperor appoints governors to each district. This type of government was effective because the central government was further enhanced by delegation of different areas . â€Å"The Chinese empire was indeed the largest political system in the classical world. † A document that would have been nice to read about would be a document with citizens from both Athens and Han, and their perspective and outlook on their form of government . Another difference Athens and Han China both had were population. Document 1 shares the characteristic of population with documents 2 3. In document one it shows two maps, one of Athens, and one of the Han Empire. These maps are a biased point of view though because it has the Han Empire map enlarged so it makes the map of Athens look smaller, but also on the map of Athens in the bottom corner it has an enlarged box of Attica. This document is not resourceful if you wanted to compare the size of Athens and Han because the maps are two different sides. It would have been helpful to have the maps the same size, also they could have showed the populations in the areas and where most people lived and where they traveled. â€Å"Athens population distribution† (2) This document shows the total population of Attica which is 315,000 . It also shows how many people were in each class, the class that had the most people were the slaves with 115,00. â€Å"Han China : population distribution†(3) This document shows the total population in Han China, 65,000,000 . Clearly Athens and Han differed in there size and population. Also in this document it shows how many people were in each class. The class with the most people is, Peasant farmers/urban workers with 58,500,000 people. Culture/ Religion is another difference Athens and Han China had. Document 8 shares the characteristic of Culture/Religion just like documents 9,10,11 12. â€Å"what is a good citizen†(8) This shows Athenian culture and what they had believed is a good citizen. This document discusses how each individual isn’t just interested in his own problems or his own self, but he’s also interested in the state and it’s affairs. While in document 10 â€Å"Confucius on the Individual and the State† This document is showing culture because the people of the Han China culture believed what Confucius taught and said. In this document Confucius said that fathers are to cover up for their sons and sons to cover up for their fathers. What would have made this document more relevant to Han China’s culture would be facts on how Confucius culturally and religiously influenced Han China and it’s peoples to believe his teachings. â€Å"Dialogue of Socrates and Crito in Prison†(9) This document is about Crito trying to get Socrates to escape from prison. Socrates was thrown into prison because he was charged for not believing in the gods that everyone believed, introducing other gods, and corrupting the youth. This shows culture because that’s what people did if you did not believe in the same Gods they believed in. Socrates did not believe or listen to Crito, he had that point of view because nothing would convince him other wise of what he thought, â€Å" I know that anything more, which you may say, will not convince me† – Socrates. Document 11†Discus Thrower† is a painting of an Athenian man throwing a discuss, the cultural style of art differed from Han China’s style of art. Ch’ iu Ying Landscape (12) differed from document 11. This is a painting of a landscape, while document 11 was a portrait. What would have been better to help further contrast these different cultures styles of art would be more documents of Han Athens’s artworks. In closing, Han China and Athens Greece had there differences in three categories, but there are more differences then just those three. For example, everyday life for the citizens. Although Han China and Athens Greece were two major empires that both ruled around the same time frame. They had there differences such as population, government, and religion/culture.

Immigration as a political and social cleavage in France Essay

Immigration as a political and social cleavage in France - Essay Example For many years, France has been home to many immigrants. The immigrants came from all over the world. It is only until recently that most newcomers in France came from other European countries. Initially, the migratory stream in France mainly composed of African Arabs and more recently black Africans from French former colonies in West Africa and the Caribbean. There are also Turks, Lebanese, and Asian immigrants (Wade 47). More notably is a group of Muslim immigrants from former French colonies. The number of Muslim immigrants in France is high to the extent that France has Western Europe’s largest Islamic population. The influx of immigrants in France has resulted in the rise of a new conflict in the nation. The conflict has led to riots and changes in laws related to the French history, culture, religion and language. Many people in French believe that the influx of immigrants will erase the identity of France as a nation especially the influence of Muslims. Religious conflicts arise due to the high number of Muslim immigrants. The religious-related conflicts have resulted in riots in many urban centers in France and tensions in Paris, Roma and other places (Angelique 1). Most of the immigrants have different ethnic backgrounds and cultures. The high numbers of these immigrants in France threaten the native ethnic composition, culture and language of the French people. The entrance of new cultures and ethnicity has threatened the local culture. Consequently, the French immigration minister launched a great debate to determine the future of France at a time when France was experiencing a high nu mber of immigrants (Nicolas 1). However, there was opposition to these national debates on immigration. Cultural cohabitation from the immigrants has increased the tension as the nation is falling into a crisis of national identity. The effects of immigrants from North Africa has

Evaluation of the Responses Made by Dretske as Pertains to Chisholms Assignment

Evaluation of the Responses Made by Dretske as Pertains to Chisholms Claims - Assignment Example It was the philosopher Fred Dretske who took to investigating the various claim that was made by the late Roderick Chisholm who postulated that intentional states could only possibly be mental states. In making this claim, Chisholm was seen to derive the claim mainly based on the thesis proposed by Franz Brentano the nineteenth-century philosopher in his book â€Å"Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint†. Chisholm’s Claim that Intentionality cannot be naturalized and Dretske’s Response to the Claim A key feature of various mental states is their actual content. An example is that in the event that I essentially believe it will snow, my actual belief as at the moment can be seen to represent a state of the weather and when I chance to see a dog, I become perpetually aware of that cat. My innate belief that it is eventually going to rain may be seen to be inaccurate or accurate, my perception as to the existence of the cat may be imprecise or precise and my desire to be loved my eventually be satisfied or unsatisfied. Brentano postulated that intentional states were essentially solely mental states and thus distinguished mental states from the physical states because they are objects of awareness and non-spatial in nature. Brentano further contends that this perceived ‘intentional inexistence’ is generally exclusive to psychical phenomena and that there are no physical phenomena that can essentially be said to have it (Feldman & Feldman 2008). The Intentionality of thought can basically be accounted through mental expectations, semantics, and language. All these factors serve to actively demonstrate psychological intention and therefore cannot be explained in non-intentional or non-psychological terms. For Chisholm intentionality cannot essentially be naturalized because it is impossible to identify any such psychological fact with a physical fact. For Chisholm, the use of various intentional sentences essentially means that all our currently existing beliefs about various psychological phenomena an essentially be sufficiently expressed through them although it is impossible to do so for physical phenomena (Feldman & Feldman 2008). A good example of this is the sentence ‘Diogenes searching for an actual honest man†, this sentence can be perceived to be an intentional statement because it is seen not to rely on the relative veracity of there necessarily being an honest man or not.  Ã‚  

Comparing State Constitutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparing State Constitutions - Essay Example This paper will focus on the similarities and differences in the constitution of Texas and Alaska. The Texas Constitution and that of Alaska have various similarities. The major substantive similarity between the constitution in the case of of the State of Alaska and that of Texas is that both have the bill of rights incorporated as their first articles. It is a formal review of the liberties and rights that are considered essential to a group of people or individuals. In both the constitutions, the rights of the individual provide various restraints on the political authority and power to protect the people against abuses and intrusions that are unwarranted. In both the constitutions, the powers of the government are outlined in every listed department. In reference to both constitutions, they are on taxation, suffrage and revenue, as well as the general provisions, and the mechanism of having the constitution amended. Both the Constitution of Alaska and that of Texas describe the function and structure of the government of the United States of America. In addition, both constit utions are used as either implied laws of United States or an embodied fundamental document that governs the state functions and roles at all departmental levels. The two constitutions function as a limiting document which dictates the powers granted to each particular state. On the other hand, there are significant differences between the two highlighted constitutions. The major substantive difference is that the constitution of Texas has seventeen articles in a given order. The first one is the conspicuous bill on Rights. The next is on the power vested on the government. The third article is on the Legislative Department while the fourth is on Executive Department. There is an article on Judicial Department, a proceeding one on Suffrage and another on Education as well as Taxation. The constitution also includes articles on revenue, counties, as well as railroads. These are some

Feminism Blog Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Feminism Blog Analysis - Essay Example The main similarity between the two sites chosen for analysis is the responsibility they take on themselves in regard to what they are writing about. In particular, the content of the blogs suggests that both sites consider treating everyone with equal respect important; also, protecting women and standing up against sexism is in the focus. In a narrower sense, the two sites both agree that women’s reproductive rights should not be restricted. They argue that women should have the ability to choose whether, how, and when they have or not have children. The sites also highlight the idea that women’s reproductive rights are affected at different levels, such as economy, medicine, education, criminal justice, government, community, and others. The use of social media has played a significant role in the modern feminist movement as well as in how it is perceived in the society. In fact, social media gives young women an opportunity to use their voices in a larger audience. Social media makes feminist activism more democratic, which means that anyone can participate in it. It removes geographical barriers and, thus, makes it possible for millions to unite as it facilitates public dialogues independent of the participants’ location. One of the examples of the co-called networked feminism is the wide use of hashtags that gives the possibility to groups messages on the issue and, consequently, to make it easier to get the information and check the messages which include it.

How Businesses Use Learning & Memory to Affect Consumers Essay - 1

How Businesses Use Learning & Memory to Affect Consumers - Essay Example What makes the study of memory so complicated is that humans have disparate methods by which information is encoded and retrieved, which is largely dependent on the level to which the human finds information relevant and important. Marketers, today, seem to understand these differences in learning and memory processing and generate marketing content (i.e. advertisements, banner ads or even digital marketing via technology) that alter the encoding process of consumers so that they will be better able to recall a brand or find personal preference toward the product or service. Consumers all have different learning processes, however there is research evidence that consumers are biased in learning as it relates to their personal stereotypes as well as the degree to which marketing information is considered relevant to the consumer. This essay focuses on the phenomenon of constraint theory in learning, consumer biases and offers an evaluation of how marketers persuade consumers to favour their brand based on consumer memory processing and learning characteristics of important target consumers. Consumer biases in learning and constraint theory It is the goal of marketers, from a competitive standpoint, to establish brand recognition in the minds of important and profitable consumers. Brand recognition is the ability of consumers to recall a particular brand under disparate conditions and be able to effectively recall logo, brand name and even brand-related slogans and jingles and link this recognition to the product or service (Schiffman and Kanuk 2010). Establishing brand recognition is critical to marketers as if they cannot recall the brand, the brand will not be considered as a potential purchase or sought as an alternative in the consumer behaviour model (Tan 2010). However, in order to establish this important aspect of brand management, marketers must first understand how consumers encode and retrieve information. The memory encoding process is complex in con sumers and is often associated with the degree to which a consumer finds a particular stimulus to be enjoyable or relevant to their lifestyles or needs. Encoding processes are strongly related to the pre-existing personal experiences and phenomenon to which consumers are exposed (Yun Yoo 2008; Cameron 1999). For instance, a consumer that is given a glass of branded alcohol in an environment where there is a crying child will likely not result in the production of strong memories that favour the brand. However, when given the same branded beverage in an environment where there is fun social activity in the individual’s peer network, the situation will be encoded as a powerful memory with positive associations between brand and experience (Cameron 1999). Therefore, there is significant evidence in the memory encoding process that a person’s level of interest and involvement determines whether positive or negative cognitive associations are created in the memory encoding and retrieval processes. This is how marketers, today, are able to utilise memory processes in consumer target groups to gain positive brand recognition and general positive sentiment toward a brand. Marketing literature tells business leaders that when a brand is able to provide consumers with a perception that the brand can enhance their lifestyles and provide self-expansion (i.e. social status improvement or lifestyle enrichment), they are likely to develop very strong emotional attachments to the brand

SPECIAL EVENT PART 2 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SPECIAL EVENT PART 2 - Coursework Example Even though the police had a right to maintain law and order in Miami Beach during the festive season, they have no right to arrest people who are trying to find out why their friends have been arrested. The police also needed to be sensitive to the fact that the visitors to the city had come from different States with different cultures. These visitors were therefore inclined to engage in behaviors that were weird and strange to other people. Such should not attract arrests but only a warning. I think that the police had directives from the Police chief to make a certain number of arrests to show that they were really working hard. This is the reason why they ended up arresting anyone whom they thought was breaking the law, which in some circumstances did not exist. An example is there was not law outlawing arguing with friends after having a drink. But the police interpreted this as a sign of misdemeanors. What the police department does is to come up with stringent laws that they do not expect to be followed by hundreds of become who have come down the beach to have fun. Someone would not expect that laws such as drinking, loud music, or even prohibiting littering will be adhered to people especially the youth who are coming down to lay their stress. â€Å"Increasing the number of arrests is yet another way they have tried to control the rowdy people that come down for the weekend. They enforce laws such as open containers, illegal parking, and loud music†. This seems to be their motto. I think what the Miami Beach police does is to deliberately come up with laws that they know very well that it is difficult to adhere to especially with a crowded and excited

Case Study of Prostitution Essay Example for Free

Case Study of Prostitution Essay Has overall responsibility and accountability for providing direction in the area of treasury services, accounting services, or procurement services. This position has discretion in establishing overall operating policies and procedures for assigned QUALIFICATIONS Bachelors Degree in accounting, finance, business administration or related field. Relevant experience may substitute for the degree requirement on a year-for-year basis. Eight years of progressively responsible, professional experience related to area of assignment at a management level. Depending on area of assignment, Certified Public Accountant Certification or Certified Purchasing Manager Certification may be strongly preferred or required. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Knowledge of: †¢ Managerial principles; †¢ Financial principles and practices in assigned areas of responsibility; †¢ Budgeting principles and practices; †¢ Applicable federal, state, and local laws, rules, regulations, and ordinances; †¢ Non-profit/college fund accounting systems and principles; †¢ Advanced internal control practices; †¢ Advanced financial analysis principles and methods; †¢ Strategic planning principles and practices;. Demonstrated Skill in: †¢ Coordinating activities with other internal departments and/or external agencies; †¢ Developing and monitoring budgets; †¢ Managing large, complex governmental financial systems; †¢ Preparing and reviewing reports; †¢ Interpreting and applying applicable Federal, State, and/or Local laws, rules, and regulations; DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 1. Plans, organizes, maintains, and manages the processes and operations of multiple functional areas within Finance. Manages the activities of assigned areas to include: planning, implementing, administering and evaluating projects and services impacting College operations from a Finance perspective. 2. Develops, recommends, and administers policies, procedures, and processes in support of Finance operations in assigned areas of responsibility; implements and monitors compliance with approved policies, procedures, and processes, ensuring alignment with College mission, values, goals and objectives and local, state, and federal laws and regulations. 3. Develops, recommends, and administers policies, procedures, and processes in support of Financial Services operations; implements and monitors compliance with approved policies, procedures, and processes. 4. Supervises administrative services professionals, paraprofessionals, and technical/support staff and performs both direct and indirect supervision through subordinates. Hires, evaluates, trains, disciplines and recommends dismissal of staff as necessary. 5. Prepares financial management reports for various College programs, reviewing financial data to ensure compliance with applicable local, state, and federal requirements and Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Researches, analyzes, and interprets applicable laws and regulations relative to assigned areas of responsibility; makes recommendations based on findings. The Customer business Relationship division is responsible for the planning, successful execution and follow up for a diverse range of customer retention campaigns, along with producing their annual budget, monthly forecast, and other business reporting as required. The CRM will carry out innovative and sometimes complex projects to their completion, and thoroughly analyze maturing data in order to make sound recommendations for next steps that aim to improve our financial results. Responsibilities †¢ PL: Responsibility for reaching or exceeding budgeted financial goals in one or more of our key customer retention categories saves and reinstatement, customer longevity, load ups, and cross sell using a variety of communication media including invoice text, inserts, email and telemarketing. †¢ Campaign Planning Execution: Responsible for conceptualizing and managing a diverse range of customer retention campaigns and initiatives. This includes idea generation and exploration, preparing and presenting proposals, overseeing the creative and production processes and championing successful execution. †¢ Campaign Analysis: Analyze campaign outcomes in detail, using a variety of proprietary software applications. Draw insights and present results clearly to facilitate sound decision making on next steps. †¢ Budget/Forecast: Build a detailed, bottom-up annual budget for areas of responsibility. Supply key inputs to the quarterly reforecast, using the most accurate, up-to-date information available. Be prepared to discuss assumptions used for developing budgets and forecasts. †¢ Special Projects: Participate in a variety of special projects as requested, including explorations of system or process improvements, new retention categories, and joint projects with Customer Service. †¢ Customer Focus: Working with Customer Service, Marketing Services and Operation to develop and maintain a customer-focused attitude toward activities, concentrating on those that most strongly contribute toward improving customer lifetime value. Qualifications †¢ BS degree with major in Marketing required †¢ 4-6 years experience in a direct marketing environment, preferably with experience in both acquisition and retention marketing †¢ Continuity or club experience, including retention and cross selling strongly preferred. †¢ Keen project management skills with an ability to interact with and motivate others to succeed on several fronts simultaneously †¢ Effective verbal and written communication on all levels and both internally and externally †¢ Strong analytical, technical and mathematical abilities †¢ Self-motivated, analytical, quick learner, organized, detail-oriented, multi-tasker †¢ Prioritizes workload and meets deadlines for a variety of marketing deliverables †¢ Demonstrates initiative with a results orientation, while exhibiting strong drive and leadership skill Marketing and communication division is someone who works to promote a companys services or products. Marketing communications managers work in conjunction with advertising and sales managers, helping to generate income for their company. They are employed in a wide array of industries and perform a multitude of tasks. Marketing communication managers also hire, train and organize their staffs. Responsibilities: Manage the marketing communications function – including communications calendar, brand, PR plan, and content development Develop presentations, collateral, positioning documents and sales tools to support both internal channel Management teams as well as Mobile Access’s VARs, strategic carriers and OEMs o Work with product management to integrate the product roadmap into a communications calendar and translate the new product value in terms of the overall company’s position within the market o Create a Mobile Access style guide and manage company’s brand image and consistency o Translate complex technical solutions in to easy to comprehend marketing messages Administer the company’s Web-site including overall positioning, content and messaging. Responsible for managing the Mobile Access Partner Portal – coordinating with the channel program team on content and tool needs Create and manage direct/indirect marketing campaigns to enable Mobile Access VARs to drive acquisition and embedded base sales Work with industry analysts and pr firm to build Mobile Access brand presence and recognition Responsible for event management . QUALIFICATIONS 7-10 years of experience in marketing and other broad range of marketing and business related roles in technology companies. Broad exposure and holistic understanding of different wireless technologies and/or in building wireless experience is desirable. Bachelors Degree required – a focus in English or communications is preferred Must have a writing background and previous experience with creating press releases, marketing collateral and white papers Experience with managing a Web-site and/or portal, utilizing a CMS like Expression Engine as well as managing the site performance against standard Web metrics Experience with e-marketing campaigns (Webinars, e-mail, banner ads, search (organic and paid), Web 2.0 tools) Experience with branding, co-branding and managing a brand delivered via indirect distribution. High-energy and team-oriented candidate desired- Familiarity with Adobe CS3/4 suite The Retail Division You will be responsible forThe aim of any retail manager is to maximize profit while minimizing costs. Retail managers ensure promotions are accurate and merchandised to the company’s standards, staff is fully versed on the target for the day and excellent customer care standards are met. †¢ Depending on the size of the store, and company structure, retail managers may also be required to deal with human resources, marketing, logistics, information technology, customer service and finance. managing and motivating a team to increase sales and ensure efficiency; †¢ managing stock levels and making key decisions about stock control; †¢ analyzing sales figures and forecasting future sales volumes to maximize profits; †¢ analyzing and interpreting trends to facilitate planning; †¢ using information technology to record sales figures, for data analysis and forward planning; †¢ dealing with staffing issues such as interviewing potential staff, conducting appraisals and performance reviews, as well as providing or organising training and development; †¢ ensuring standards for quality, customer service and health and safety are met; †¢ resolving health and safety, legal and security issues; †¢ responding to customer complaints and c omments; †¢ promoting the organization locally by liaising with local schools, newspapers and the community in general; †¢ organizing special promotions, displays and events; †¢ attending and chairing meetings; Qualification has deep understanding, knowledge and skill in the Retail industry, and extensive experience in managing Retail operations across a network ideally in the beauty and gift sectors. You must possess excellent analytical skills and commercial flair evidenced by previous ability to drive commercial growth, be an inspirational leader with excellent people management skills, strong business acumen with ability to perform with insight and intelligence and first class decision making and negotiation skills.

Development of Sediment Reference Sample for Toxicity Tests

Development of Sediment Reference Sample for Toxicity Tests Development of sediment reference sample for toxicity testing using Microtox Solid Phase test and Metal Fractionation using single extractions Abstract Chemical characterisation of pollutants using fractionation techniques and bioassays are useful monitoring tools for sediment quality assessment. However, a common criticism of sediment bioassays is the lack of an appropriate reference sediment sample which sample sediment toxicity can be comparatively assessed. In this study an approach of obtaining a reference sediment sample by cleaning the sediment samples with metals was tested. Metal fractionation was carried out by applying single extraction techniques modified from a sequential extraction scheme proposed by Tessier et al (1979). The total metal concentrations were characterised using nitric acid digestion. The sediment samples before and after the extractions were analysed using the Microtox Solid Phase Test (SPT). Comparison of total metal concentration with various sediment quality guidelines suggests that the sediments are polluted due to higher concentrations of Cu , Ni , Pb , Cd and Zn. The fractionation studies reveal t hat metals are contained mainly within Fe-Mn Oxide phase.The comparison of the results of the SPT with various sediment classification methods suggests that the sediments are moderately toxic to non toxic. However, the results of changes in the toxicity of sediment residues obtained after each extraction compared to unprocessed sediment toxicity results are not statistically significant. But the comparison of toxicity results of sediment residues obtained after HNO3 and NaOAc digestion with the toxicity value of replicate1 of unprocessed sediment suggests a marginal decrease in the toxicity of sediments while the comparison of toxicity values of MgCl2 , NH2OH.HCl, HNO3+H2O2 indicates an increase in the toxicity of sediment residued. The comparison of toxicity values of all sediment residues with that of replicate2 of unprocessed sediment indicates an increase in the toxicity of the sediments after extractions. Get wisdom, get understanding. Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom. Though it costs all you have, get understanding (Proverbs 4: 5,7). Then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free (John 8: 32). CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background: With the growing interest in the rules that govern the fate of pollutants in urban environments, the sediments of urban rivers pose a particularly challenging scientific problem as many persistent contaminants (e.g. metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs)) tend to concentrate in river bed sediments. Therefore, the assessment of sediment quality is recognised as a critical step in understanding the risks associated with man made pollution in the riverine system (De Miguel et al , 2005). Depending upon the conditions in the river, pollutants bound to sediment may become bioavailable and impose toxicity on aquatic organisms. Chemical analysis alone is not adequate to explain effects of chemicals present in the sediment (Beg and Ali, 2008) as they do not prove that adverse effects are occurring (Luoma et al , 1995) , thus for optimal characterization and assessment of pollution , issues concerning both concentration and toxicity should be addressed (Mowat et al , 2001). Therefore, because of the need to establish a cause -effect relationship between the concentration of pollutants and consequent environmental damage and to measure the possible synergistic effect of complex mixture of chemicals(Girotti et al , 2008), Microbial toxicity tests based on bacteria have been widely used in environmental toxicity screening due to the similarity of complex biochemical function in bacteria and higher organisms (Mowat et al , 2001) .Among the bioassays solid phase tests are useful and widely used as test organisms are exposed to whole sediments which include water soluble and non polar substances and thus offer a high relative realism for toxicity assessment of sediments. However, sediment toxicity tests require reference sediment exclusive of contaminant with similar physico chemical characteristics as the test sediments (Guzzella , 1998). The microtox test based on bacterial bioluminescence which uses V. Fischeri bacteria as test organism represent one of the most suitable test for sediment toxicity assessment as it can be used on extracts as well as directly to the sediment (solid phase test) ( Calace et al , 2005). As it is now widely recognised that the total concentrations of Heavy Metals indicate the extent of contamination, but they provide little information about the forms in which Heavy Metals are present, or about their potential for mobility and bioavailability in the environment (Lake et al , 1987) , knowledge on metal speciation in the sedimentary environment may be of more importance for hazard assessment than the total metal concentrations( Farkas et al , 2007). For this reason, sequential extraction procedures are commonly applied because they provide information about the fractionation of metals in the different lattices of the sediments and other solid samples (Margui et al , 2004). It is against this background that an investigation into establishing a reference sediment sample for solid phase bioassays was undertaken in relation to Microtox solid phase test utilising single extractions of metal fractions using -same conditions and procedures described in the sequential extraction procedure mentioned in Tessier et al 1979 . Aims and Objectives: The main aim of the study is to assess whether the approach of cleaning the sediment with metals using single extraction steps of sequential extraction is an appropriate alternative to develop a sediment reference sample or not. In order to obtain a reference sample exclusive of metals, the following procedure was adopted: Each extraction step described in the Tessier scheme was applied to separate aliquots of sediment samples using the same extraction conditions and chemicals described in the scheme (see section 3.8 for details). After the extraction step washed and dried residue sediment samples were analysed for toxicity using the Microtox solid phase test. A reduction in the toxicity could be expected as the metals were removed using chemicals. Microtox solid phase test was also conducted on unprocessed sediment so that a relative comparison between toxicity measurements could be made. The objectives of the investigation are summarised as follows : To characterise the sediments for total bio available metal concentration for eight heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu,Fe,Mn,Zn,Pb,Ni) using nitric acid digestion method. To characterise various fractions of metals as described in the Tessier Scheme using single extraction procedures. To determine the level of toxicity associated with unprocessed and processed sediment sample using the Microtox solid phase test. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Urban River Sediments and Pollution: Urban rivers have been linked with water quality issues since the nineteenth century when it was usual practice to discharge untreated domestic and industrial waste into water courses. Since then the situation has been improved due to e.g. the management curtailment of pollution at sewage treatment plants. However, because of high population densities in urban areas due to variety of sources of pollution the degradation of urban rivers is still important today (Goodwin et al , 2003). When released into the river environment many anthropogenic chemicals bind or adsorb on to particulate matter and depending upon river morphology and hydrological conditions such particulate matter along with associated contaminants can settle out along the water course and become part of the bottom sediments(Vigano et al , 2003). Thus , sediments are considered as repositories for physical and biological debris and for many pollutants (Calmano et al , 1996). Further more , under various physical , biological and chemical conditions (e.g. aqueous solubility ,pH, redox , affinity for sediment organic carbon , grain size of sediments , sediment mineral constituents and quantity of acid volatile sulfides) these contaminants may become bioavailable and result in a toxic impact on aquatic biota(Ingersoll et al , 1995). Nowdays, escalating evidence of environmental degradation have been confirmed where water quality guidelines for contaminants are not surpassed but, still organisms in or near the sediments are adversely affected (Ingersoll et al , 1995). Thus, with a vision to protecting aquatic biota, improving water quality and managing problems of resuspension and the land deposition of dredged materials, sediment quality assessment has been a crucial scientific and legislative issue in recent years. ( Calmano et al 1996 ; Nipper et al 1998). 2.2 Water Framework Directive (WFD) : The European Unions(EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) which came in effect on 22 December 2000, is one of the most important pieces of environmental legislation and is likely to transform the way water quality is being monitored within all member states ( Allan et al , 2006). The main objective of the Directive is to improve, protect and prevent further deterioration of water quality across Europe and it aims to achieve and ensure good quality status of all water bodies throughout Europe by 2015. Thus the necessity of addressing water quality issues associated with urban rivers has been increased within Member States(Goodwin et a, 2003). Under the WFD , three modes of monitoring strategies are specified and at each strategy level chemical monitoring , biological/ecological assessment , physico-chemical and hydro morphological tools have been covered to assess the water quality status of the body(Allan et al,2006). In the WFD, EU commission places emphasis on establishing quality standards related to the concentrations of priority substances and substances which may cause harm in water , sediment or biota . (Crane , 2003). 2.3 Sediment and Pollutants Sources in Urban Rivers : Urban river system is much more complex in its sediments and pollutant sources. Sediments may be released into urban rivers due to erosion of land surface through variety of physical and chemical processes, the rapid run off from impervious surfaces, routing through drainage network, retention tanks and winter gritting roads (Goodwin et al, 2003). These sediments may contain or associated with pollutants such as hydrocarbons , garden and animal wastes , fertilisers , pesticides , oils , detergents , deicing chemicals , street litter (Hall, 1984 ; Chapman, 1996) and trace and heavy metals (Collins et al, 2007). Moreover, Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events also augment the pollutant and sediment load due to its own contaminant load and the erosion and wash out of in-sewer sediments (Fierros et al , 2002). Due to the wide variety of sources and river dynamics there exist a wide spatial and temporal variation in the properties of sediments. 2.4 River Sediment Composition and dynamics : River sediments are mainly composed of mineral particles originated from the parent rocks due to erosion process, particulate organic matter adsorbed on mineral particles or particle sized organic matter which originates from plant detritus and animal debris, adsorbed nutrients and toxic inorganic and organic pollutants (Chapman , 1996). However , with respect to their behaviour in nature , sediments can be classified in two distinctively different groups a) fine sediments with particles smaller than 50m (i.e silt and clay) and b) coarse sediments with size exceeding 50m ( i.e. sands and gravels) (Salomons et al , 1984). The erosion, transportation and deposition of sediment is a function of river flow velocity, particle size, water content of the material (Chapman , 1996) , channel structure and degree of turbulence(Goodwin et al , 2003). Under certain hydraulic conditions sediments can be transported in suspension or by traction along the bottom which is often called Bed Load. The suspension mechanism initiates the movement of fine particles while the Bed Load causes the movement of coarse particles (Chapman , 1996). More over, within urban catchments rapid runoff and CSO events trigger river flow events with short peak times and high peak flows which step up transport of sediments and associated pollutants (Goodwin et al , 2003). 2.5 Sediment Quality Assessment: Historically, the assessment of sediment quality has often been limited to chemical characterisation. It helps to classify what are the contaminants and what is their concentrations(McCauley et al , 2000) and it provides information about the condition of sediments and processes within them(Wolska et al , 2007). However, quantifying contaminant concentration alone can not provide enough information to evaluate adequately potential adverse effects, possible interaction among chemicals or the time dependent availability of these materials to aquatic organisms ( Ingersoll et al , 1995) because it is impractical to analyze all the compounds and their synergistic/antagonistic effects contributing to toxicity(Plaza et al , 2005). As the bioavailability of pollutants to aquatic biota and their effects on the biota is the key concern in sediment risk assessment , ecotoxicological testing (bioassays) of sediments which study the toxic effects of sediment contaminants on living organisms ( e.g . fish , plants , bacteria , algae) has been extensively used ( Rand et al , 1995). Thus, to understand the fate of pollutants in sediments and their impacts on aquatic biota , a tiered biological and chemical assessment methods have been implemented (Calmano et al , 1996) . The sediment quality triad methodology, one of the most widely used tiered approach based on weight of evidence combines 1) Identification and quantification of contaminants (i.e. chemical analyses ) , 2) Measurement and quantification of Toxicity based on bioassays (toxicity tests) and 3) Evaluation of in situ biological effects(e.g. Benthic community structure) (Calmano et al , 1996 ; McCauley et al , 2000 ). Principal advantages are that it can be used for any sediment type (Calmano et al ,1996) and as both biological and chemical components are used , environmental significance of contaminated sediments is addressed (McCauley et al , 2000). However the cause -effect relations are not always identified due to the synergistic/antagonistic effects of chemicals causing toxicity in sediments (Calmano et al , 1996 ; McCauley et al , 2000) . Furthermore, the assessment is very site specific and does not allow empirical calculations of chemical specific guidelines ( Mc Cauley , 2000). 2.6 Metals in Urban Sediments and Sources : Metals are natural components of biosphere (Luoma , 1983) and they are introduced in to the aquatic environment through many lithogenic and anthropogenic sources(Zhou et al , 2008). Chemical leaching of bedrocks , water drainage basins and run off from banks are considered as the major lithogenic sources of metals (Zhou et al , 2008) while emissions from industrial processes ( e.g. mining , smelting , finishing , plating , paint an dye manufaturing) (Rand et al , 1995) and through urban sewage, house hold effluents, drainage water, business effluents , atmospheric deposition and traffic related emissions transported with storm water (Karvelas et al , 2003) are the major anthropogenic sources of metals in the aquatic environment. Upon discharge to the aquatic environment metals are partitioned between solid and liquid phase (Luoma , 1983) and eventually as a result of settling metals associated with solid phase accumulate in bottom sediments(Farkas et al , 2007).Thus , sediments are m ain sink of metals in aquatic environment(Morillo et al , 2002). A comparison of typical concentration of metals in urban river sediments is presented in the Table 2.1. Table 2.1 : Concentration of metals in urban river sediments(g/g) (reproduced from De Miguel et al , 2005) Cr Cu Fe(%) Mn Ni Pb Zn River Henares, Spain (97-180) (7-270) (0.8-3.16) (150-445) (11-128) (17-1280) River Seine , France 84 2.91 162 429 River Sowe , UK 47.9 164 411 786 Semarang , Indonesia (12.3-448) (5.2-2666) (53.7-1257) Danube River, Austria 43.5 53.9 187 Tiber river , Italy (18.2-54.2) (13.3-45.5) (3.6-33.5) (12.4-43.1) (53.4-417.6) River Po, Italy (118-223) (45.2-179.9) (4.5-5.2) (355-1159) (99-237) (39.3-71.8) (127-519) River Sherbourne 38 71 2.9 481 19 118 196 River Manzanares (18-1260 (11-347) (1.9-9.1) (305-1276) (5-47) (42-371) (70-591) In brackets : minimum- maximum values ; in italic :arithmatic mean values 2.7 Toxic metals and their forms in sediments : Although some metals are essential micronutrients (e.g. Mn, Fe, Cu,Zn) , almost all metals are toxic to aquatic organisms and human health if exposure levels are sufficiently high (Luoma , 1983). Among the toxic metals cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, mercury and arsenic are of prime importance due to their association with anthropogenic inputs. Under different physical, biological or chemical conditions the toxicity of metals in sediments is a matter of bio availability (Jennett et al ,1980). Thus in order to estimate the bio availability of metals and their potential toxicity it is desirable not only to determine the total concentration but also the different chemical forms or ways of binding between metals and sediments(Albores et al , 2000). In sediments depending upon various physical, chemical and biological conditions , metals partitioned into different chemical forms associated with a variety of organic and inorganic phases (Farkas et al , 2007).In river sediments metal can be bound to various compartments e.g. adsorbed onto clay surfaces or iron and manganese oxy hydroxides, present in lattice of secondary minerals such as carbonates, sulphates or oxides, occluded within amorphous material such as iron and manganese oxyhydroxides, complexed with organic matter or lattice of primary minerals such as silicates (Gismera et al , 2004). Due to natural and anthropogenic environmental changes these associations can be altered and metals can become more or less bio available or mobilized within different phases. These influential factors include pH, temperature , redox potential , organic matter decomposition , leaching and ion exchange processes and microbial activity(Filgueiras et al ,2002). Thus in relation to their mobi lity and bioavailability, in order of decreasing interest the major metal fractions are : 1) Exchangeable ,2) Bound to carbonates , 3) Bound to Fe-Mn Oxides , 4) Bound to organic matter and 5) Residual . 2.7.1 Exchangeable Metals : In this fraction , weakly adsorbed metals retained on the solid surface by relatively weak electrostatic forces that can be released by ion exchange processes in the sediment are included(Filgueiras et al , 2002). These metals are considered the most available form of metals present in the sediments (Morrison , 1985). 2.7.2 Metals Bound to Carbonates : Metals in this fractions are co-precipitated with carbonates which exist as cement and coating (Morrison , 1985) and this phase can be an important adsorbent for metals in the absence of organic matter and Fe-Mn oxides (Filgueiras et al , 2002). 2.7.3 Metals bound to Fe-Mn Oxides : Metals in this fraction are associated with Iron and Manganese oxides which exist as nodules , concretion and cement between particles or simply as a coating on particles. Iron and Manganese oxides are considered as excellent scavengers of metals and are thermodynamically unstable under anoxic conditions (Tessier et al , 1979). 2.7.4 Metals bound to organic matter : In this fractions metals associated with various forms of organic materials such as living organisms, plant and animal detritus or coatings on mineral particles are included. This fraction is considered to be less mobile due to their associations with humic substances of higher molecular weights(Filgueiras et al , 2002). 2.8 Sequential Extractions : A sequential extraction procedure (SEP) also known as sequential extraction scheme (SES) can be used to determine above mentioned binding fractions of metals in the sediment. In this process, given sediment sample is subjected to a series of increasingly strong , phase specific reagents under controlled condition which extract our metals from the particular physic-chemical phase of interest(Bird et al , 2005). Depending upon target fractions, a wide variety of chemical extractants can be used (see fig.2.1) and thus in the literature various sequential extraction schemes are available which differ in the use of extractant, target phase and the order of attack to separate particular form of metals. The majority of the schemes are variants of a scheme proposed by Tessier et al (1979). Many researchers have reported difficulties in comparing the results of SES due to their wide variation in the use of chemicals and target phase. Thus, in an effort to harmonize the different methodologies and to make the comparison of results easier , Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) proposed a three step extraction procedure along with a reference sediment material to certify the protocol (Mossop and Davidson , 2003). 2.9 Advantages and problems of sequential extractions : The application of sequential extraction techniques , though time consuming provide valuable information about the origin , mode of occurrence, biological and physic-chemical availability , mobilisation and transport of metals within the sedimentary matrices(Tokalioglu et al , 2000).However, since their initial development, sequential extraction schemes have been criticized for the lack of selectivity of reagents, issues of re adsorption and redistribution of metals solubilised during extraction and changes in speciation due to sample pre- treatment and its general methodology ( Gleyzes et al , 2002). In the sequential extraction scheme, the reagents are expected to attack only the target phase without solubilising the other phases. However, it has been found that the reagents are not selective and may affect other phases also. Thus the sequential extractions are termed as operationally defined fractionation techniques. This lack of selectivity may cause re-adsoprtion and re distribution of metals among the target phases. Moreover, incomplete dissolution of some phases and changes in pH may also lead toward re adsorption and redistribution problems (Gleyzes et al, 2002). Various researchers have reported the problem of re adsorption and redistribution for many sequential extractions for each phase. Despite these limitations sequential extractions are widely accepted for metal fractionation in sediment samples to assess the mobility and bioavailability of metals . 2.10 Single Extractions : To reduce lengthy procedures and thus making sequential extractions a part of routine analysis, various alternatives(e.g. microwave heating and ultrasonic shaking) to conventional extraction procedures have been employed (Albores et al , 2000). One of the alternatives to reduce the lengthy and laborious sequential process is to use single extractions. In single extractions the same reagents and operating conditions as the sequential extractions are applied to different sub- sample (Albores et al ,2000) and, except for first step , the metal concentrations in each individual step can be obtained by subtracting the results obtained in two successive steps(Filgueiras et al , 2002). Initially this technique was suggested by Tack et al (1996) in which first three steps mentioned in Tessiers Scheme were extracted simultaneously while, for organic matter bound metals, it was suggested that the sample should be extracted first for reducing metals and should then be re treated with hydrogen p eroxide step to remove organic matter and thus release metals bound to this phase. 2.11 Bioassays : A useful monitoring tool Bioassays measure changes in physiology and behaviour of living organisms resulting from stress induced by biological or chemical toxic compounds which can cause disruption of e.g. metabolism. Thus, bioassays help to establish cause / effect relationship between the concentrations of pollutants and consequent environmental damage (Girrotti et al , 2008). Historically fish and macro invertabrates bioassays are the first in the series of toxicity bioassays involving animals. As these bioassays were found useful in assessing the acute toxicity of chemicals and effluents and often predicted their effects of aquatic biota and habitat, they have been extensively used in the screening of chemicals and regulatory compliance monitoring (Blaise et al , 1998). However , these conventional bioassays require longer test duration along with additional time(e.g. acclimatisation) for preparations of the test (Ribo and Kaiser , 1987). Moreover toxicity was found a trophic level property and thus it was realized that protection of aquatic resources could not be ensured by conducting bioassays solely at macro organism level (Rand et al , 1995). Therefore an urgent requirement of cost effective , multi trophic and faster bioassays was strongly felt which led to development of micro scale testing procedures involving bacteria , protozoa , micro algae and micro invertabrate (Blaise et al , 1998). Distinct advantages of microbial testing procedures include :1) ease of handling ,2 ) short testing time , 2) reproducibility of results (Mowat et al , 2001) and 4) cost effectiveness (Wadhia and Thompson , 2007). 2.12 Sediment Toxicity Tests : As Van Beelen (2003) stated, toxicity is not a substance property only , but it is the c